Pengadaan Elektronik dan Reformasi Administrasi: Studi Kasus di Korea Selatan, Indonesia, dan India E-Procurement and Administrative Reform: Cases of South Korea, Indonesia, and India

Public procurement is needed in all government functions and all sectors, so that government awareness of the important role of procurement is increasing in various countries. Governments in both developed and developing countries allocate significant amounts of budget to public procurement policies. On the other hand, the procurement sector is vulnerable to corruption. e-procurement is an innovation that has been initiated by various countries to reduce corruption. The implementation of e-procurement in various countries is believed to be able to reduce corruption so that it can accelerate administrative reform in each of these countries. Therefore, this article aims to compare the implementation of e-procurement in South Korea, India, and Indonesia within the framework of administrative reform. This article uses a constructive approach with a qualitative method. Data was collected with desk research on literature, policy documents, regulations, and other relevant documents. The results show that e-procurement in South Korea, India, and Indonesia is part of administrative reforms that result in efficiency, transparency and accountability, as well as accessibility and equity. The main findings of this article indicate that the factors that influence e-procurement reform in South Korea, Indonesia, and India are due to accountability and integrity, the emergence of donor support for developing countries that carry out public administration reforms, and a political economy system that is able to suppress the practice of "rents". seeker” in the procurement process. South Korea's success story in implementing KONEPS can serve as an example for Indonesia and India.


Introduction
The government increasingly recognizes the immense power of public procurement to solve global societal challenges, improve productivity, and increase accountability.
Governments in both developed and developing countries allocate significant budgets to public procurement. Djankov, Islam, and Saliola's (2016) research depict that 12.61 -14.44% of a country's GDP was allocated for public procurement in 2015. Public procurement expenditure as a percentage of GDP increased slightly across the OECD over the last decade, from 11.8% of GDP in 2008 to 12.6% of GDP in 2019 (OECD, 2021). Additionally, the World Bank (2020) claimed that GDP shares for public procurement in developing countries were around 15-22%. Figure 1 above shows that, in 2020, procurement spending in several countries increased significantly. Among 22 OECD-EU countries for which data is available, public procurement increased from 13.7% of GDP in 2019 to 14.9% of GDP in 2020. These increases are due to governments purchasing goods and services to support their COVID-19 responses and GDP falling because of the crisis. The data above depicts that public procurement has an important role in providing quality and open public services.
As the budget allocated for public procurement comes from taxes, governments must be accountable and efficient. However, some research reveals that public procurement is vulnerable to corruption (OECD, 2016;Transparency International, 2014;Thai, 2009, p.20;Rose-Ackerman, 1999). In the procurement process for public services, there are ever-present risks of inefficiencies, corruption, and misconduct (OECD -IPACS, 2019). Data from the Mahendra & Afra: "Pengadaan Elektronik dan Reformasi Administrasi: Studi Kasus di Korea Selatan, Indonesia, dan India" OECD confirms that in most cases, bribes were paid to obtain public procurement contracts (57%), followed by clearance of customs procedures (12%) (OECD, 2014). These facts urge governments to conduct reform, and one of the methods is the use of ICT for procurement (eprocurement).

Figure 1
General Government Procurement Spending as A Percentage of GDP andTotal Government Expenditures, 2007, 2019 and 2020 Sources: OECD National Accounts Statistics (database), 2021 Some research reveals that public procurement is prone to corruption (Olken 2007, Collier et al. 2016, Lichand and Fernandes 2019, Colonnelli and Prem 2020. Globally, public procurement is a major risk area for corruption. According to UNODC's Guidebook on Anti-Corruption in Public Procurement, an average of 10-25% of a contract's value may be lost through corruption, amounting globally to hundreds of billions of dollars per year (UNODC, 2020). Approximately 8% to 25% of the value of procured goods, services, or works goes to bribes. For example, a recent EU study found that inefficiencies in public procurement amount to 18% of the overall project budgets concerned, two-thirds of which can be attributed to corruption (European Anti-Fraud Office-OLAF, 2021). Additionally, corruption in public procurement reduces the quality of public services and endangers the sustainability and safety of public projects and purchases (Transparency International, 2014, p.4;World Bank, 2016, p.2).
Jejaring Administrasi Publik, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2022, hal 1-21 While governments have traditionally attempted to mitigate corruption risks in public procurement through regulation, the latest research (for example, Bosio et al. 2020) shows that laws on their own are largely ineffective at reducing the risk of bribery. Instead, more focus should be placed on procurement practices, as corruption is highly correlated. In particular, the focus of anti-corruption efforts can be directed towards some specific features of procurement practice. A system that can control and monitor the procurement process directly is needed to have minimal intervention and lobbying from related parties. E-procurement eliminates the direct human interaction on bidding and other work and services, corruption decreases significantly, and internal efficiency increases in government departments (Ndou, 2004;Dema, 2015). Although e-procurement is not a "panacea to curb corruption" (Transparency International, 2014, p.28), the emergence of e-procurement is believed to be able to reduce corruption (OECD, 2016, p.22). Moreover, inefficiency also emerges in traditional public procurement and inefficient procedures and results in a high cost of public goods and services. (ADB, 2013, p.18).
Additionally, besides reducing corruption, ADB (2013, p.11-15) describes that eprocurement has eight main objectives. These aspects are increasing efficiency, increasing accessibility, enhancing transparency and accountability, and being equitable and inclusive.
Some countries such as South Korea, Indonesia, and India have implemented e-procurement since the early 1990s -2000s and has an interesting policy to learn (ADB, 2013).
In South Korea, a notable improvement has been made in the transparency of public procurement administration since the early 2000s through the implementation of a national eprocurement system. In 2002, Public Procurement Service (PPS), the central procurement agency of Korea, introduced a fully integrated, end-to-end e-procurement system called KONEPS. This system electronically covers the entire procurement cycle (including one-time registration, tendering, contracts, inspection, and payment), and related documents are exchanged online). Different from South Korea, government procurement in India is decentralized. At the high level, government organization is subdivided into 28 state governments, 7 union territories, 51 central government ministries and 247 central public sector enterprises (Somasundaram, 2011).
In comparison, the e-procurement system in Indonesia was initiated in 2002. The eprocurement system was named the National E-Procurement Government of Indonesia (NePGI), which was managed by the Ministry of Communication and Information and later This paper will describe the objectives of e-procurement in the three countries above, in the field of efficiency, transparency and accountability, and accessibility and equitability.
These countries are selected because they have different e-procurement systems and represent three different regions in Asia (South-eastern, Southern, and Eastern Asia) which will be further explained. On the other hand, there are several things that these countries have in common.
Finally, factors affecting reform in public procurement will be examined, and lessons learned will be drawn. As an illustration, the following Table 1 compares e-procurement policies in South Korea, Indonesia, and India.
The data shows that only India uses the e-procurement system provided by the third party due to some reasons such as the lack of technical resources and risk avoidance. South Korea is leading in implementing e-procurement because it has many services and is very innovative. South Korea has won many awards, one of which was the UN's Best Practice Model for E-Procurement award in 2004. KONEPS has also become a benchmarking model for eprocurements in many developing countries, including Indonesia. Meanwhile, Indonesia began rolling out a "semi-electronic procurement" (SEP) system in 2004 in the central ministry in Jakarta and decentralized the procedure across the 33 provincial offices. This finding is an exciting thing to be compared further. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to find the differences, similarities, and lessons learned from the e-procurement policies in South Korea, India, and Indonesia in the scope of implementing administrative reforms in each country. The two main questions to be answered through this study are.
1. Do e-procurements in South Korea, Indonesia, and India meet the reform's objectives?

Research Methods
This study uses a constructivist approach, which inductively compares e-procurement policies in South Korea, India, and Indonesia. Creswell & Creswell (2017) and Riccucci (2010) state that the collection method can be carried out qualitatively in the constructivism approach.
In this study, the qualitative method used through literature review, an analysis of policy documents, and review of regulations include research material published in research reports and similar documents.
This type of study includes desk research using existing data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall effectiveness of the study. This study uses documents available in any public libraries, websites, data obtained from filled-in surveys, etc.
Desk research is much more cost-effective than primary research. Unlike primary research, it uses already existing data, where data is collected firsthand by organizations or businesses, or they can employ a third party to collect data on their behalf. This research focuses on the implementation of the e-procurement policy in South Korea, India, and Indonesia in the period from the implementation of the policy to the present.
The design of this research begins with conducting a literature study and study of policy documents related to e-procurement policies in various countries. In Asia, South Korea, India, and Indonesia have some differences and similarities in implementing these policies. The centralization of procurement policies, providers of procurement services, and government commitments in each country are some of the differences encountered. Meanwhile, the three countries are developing countries with almost the same level of public welfare in the early 2000s. Still, the achievements of their e-procurement policies can give different results for each country nowadays.

Does E-Procurement in South Korea, Indonesia, and India Meet the Reform's Objectives?
As part of the administrative reform initiative, the implementation of e-procurement is intended to make improvements in various fields, especially in encouraging reformative procurement. In this article, three aspects of reform will be discussed: Jejaring Administrasi Publik, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2022, hal 1-21

a. Increasing Efficiency
The 2014 BIAC Economic Survey revealed that enhancing efficiency and transparency in public procurement is the main priority for public sector reform (OECD, 2016, p.7).
Efficiency means reductions in transaction costs resulting from electronic workflows or automated transaction processing (ADB, 2013). World Bank estimated that cost savings from implementing e-procurement accounted for roughly 6-13% of the total budget (Transparency International, 2014, p.28).
Through the implementation of KONEPS, South Korea sets efficiency as the main priority. Through the integrated service, South Korea get benefits in term of efficiency. The details of process efficiency are following (see Figure 2). By using integrated services, 477 documents required in public procurement are digitized. Once registered to the system, providers can participate in all procurements (OECD, 2016, p.47). In addition, an integrated service accelerates processing time, from more than 30 hours to less than 2 hours. In addition, providers are paid within 4 hours after making a request (www.pps.go.kr).
In terms of money efficiency, KONEPS saves transaction costs of around USD 8 billion Public procurement spending accounts in Indonesia for almost half of all ministerial, institutional, and local government spending. Meanwhile, the pandemic has contributed to a significant projected increase in the Indonesian State budget, from $195 billion USD in 2020 to $196 in 2021, as well as to a rise in procurement expenditure over the same period. On the other hand, the efficiency from public procurement also increases in 2021 (UNODC, 2021).
This efficiency comes from cutting transportation, accommodation, consolidation, and printing expenses (Hidayat, 2015).

Figure 2
Comparison of Procurement Process Source: OECD 2016 In addition, the implementation of the e-catalogue can also save local government's money. For instance, in 2013, the Government of Jakarta Province could buy 92 garbage trucks by using the e-catalogue. Using the same budget, the government could buy ten more garbage trucks than it could get if using the tender process (Republika, 2013). Additionally, eprocurement can also cut the time needed for processing tenders. Prior to e-procurement, traditional methods took more than one week to complete. However, the emergence of eprocurement has transformed the time required for a tender to around three days. In other words, e-procurement can reduce processing time up to 80% (LKPP, 2017).
By these achievements, the Indonesian government consistently supports implementing comprehensive e-procurement features in the future. The government also make efforts to simplify regulation, improve the quality of infrastructure of e-procurement, and accomplish ecatalogue systems. A large amount of money saved by efficiency is beneficial for developing countries like Indonesia, which can then allocate funds to development programs. India also Jejaring Administrasi Publik, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2022, hal 1-21 saw efficiency in implementing e-procurement, with the details as see Table 2.
The e-procurement procedure allows government contracting authorities to procure goods and services from their suppliers electronically, by transforming the manual procurement procedure into an electronic, internet-based system. Suppliers, in turn, benefit from being able to present their products on the World Wide Web. They (suppliers) can receive, manage, and process government purchase orders, and receive payment from government agencies online by using the e-procurement system. With the automation of the entire procurement cycle in eprocurement System, suppliers benefit significantly from the opportunity to reach a broader base of buyers than ever before coupled with lower operating costs, shorter turnaround time, additional revenue, and increased customer satisfaction (Nawi, et al., 2017). Vendors can also access the system without any time restrictions. Finally, this evidence shows that e-procurement supports public procurement reform in terms of efficiency. At this point, efficiency is simply described as reducing time and cost.

Transparency and Accountability
In the context of public procurement, transparency means that regulations, processes, and decisions can be monitored by the public (Transparency International, 2014, p.12).
Meanwhile, accountability means the obligation of the government to give full and fair information regarding their actions (Callahan, 2007, p.108). Rose-Ackerman (1999, p.143) also stressed that public accountability is crucial to control corruption. According to many studies, Transparency and accountability are key in public procurement, (Cocciolo, et.al., 2022). In fact, the implementation of e-procurement in South Korea, Indonesia, and India emphasizes transparency and accountability in some ways, as discussed below.
In practice, transparency in KONEPS is proven by the availability of real-time tender information, procedures, notices, bidding details and results, and any relevant information.
Additionally, the public can track the progress of each transaction, from tendering to invoicing (OECD, 2016). KONEPS closes the opportunity for corruption since people can also watch the arbitration process. The government also mandates all public organizations publish all tenders through KONEPS (PPS, 2021). In responding to OECD recommendations on accountability, South Korea conducts internal and external audits to implement KONEPS. Figure 3 shows the scope of the audit conducted by PPS. Meanwhile, the public does not have full access to the process.
Since transparency correlates to accountability, the availability of detailed information about public procurement on the website shows the government's initiative to disclose the previously "sensitive" or "secret" information. Through the recorded data, many agencies such as Supreme Audit Agency (BPK), Indonesian Police (Polri), and Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK), as well as the public, can conduct monitoring. In addition, the procurement committee in every procurement unit (ULP) has a responsibility to answer any complaint/appeal during the process and explain why a specific provider failed to proceed.
The central government of India mandates all departments/agencies to publish all tenders through an e-publishing service on the website. As a result, 181,868 tenders are available on the website, roughly USD 20.07 billion. Additionally, any related information such as regulations, downloadable documents, progress, and the total value of the tenders are also available on the website (MMP, 2017).
The government also requires vendors to use an e-payment system to monitor the transaction. It aims to curb corruption by minimizing "over cheques" from the vendors. In addition, the government also develops an accounting software that can generate "exception reports" and give a warning when there are frauds (OECD, 2007, p.43

b. Accessibility and Equitability
The centralized service provided by the e-procurement system ensures that suppliers can find the tenders easily from any device (ADB, 2013, p.13). In addition, the online publication gives opportunities to all providers to compete fairly (large companies, SOEs, and small, medium, and micro enterprises) (ADB, 2013, p.15). In South Korea, the integrated system allows providers to access all tenders after completing registration. In addition, PPS implements Multiple Award Schedules (MAS) to meet various needs of different end-users. By The emergence of e-procurement in Indonesia also enhances accessibility for all people or vendors. The user only needs to register once to bid in all agencies or local governments in Indonesia through an integrated system. Moreover, the availability of the Vendor Management System (SIKaP) gives an option for providers to participate in all agencies/local governments or only in selected areas. By regularly checking the email, providers in large and small/medium scale enterprises have many opportunities to participate in many procurements (Kompas, 2016).   (LKPP, 2020). Before e-procurement existed, the absence of transparency caused problems, such as people intimidating procurement staff and unfair competition. For example, certain providers threatened others to prevent them from submitting the tender) (Mahendra & Fatihah, 2013, p.500). The LPSE website only shows several competitors without disclosing detailed information (name, contact, etc.) to anticipate unfair competition.
In India, implementing e-procurement gives many vendors opportunities to compete.
Although each state government has its system, the government ensures that the system is interoperable or interlinked. Upon registration in a unified platform, the system will validate and record the registrant's information. It aims to prevent double registration and ensure user accessibility through the entire system (both central and state government) (Asian Development Bank, 2011, p.31). As a result, the average number of competitors increased from 3 to 4.5 bidders per tenders (Asian Development Bank, 2013). To sum up, the facts above show that the emergence of e-procurement increases public or vendor accessibility. Thus, accessibility leads to a fair competition which will benefit the governments.

What Factors Affect E-Procurement Reform in South Korea, Indonesia, and India?
Following factors drive ICT-enabled public procurement reform in South Korea, Indonesia, and India.

a. Accountability and Integrity
According to World Bank (2020), around 13% of the country's GDP is allocated for procurement. Many scholars believe that public procurement can trigger economic development in a country. However, scepticism has arisen since public procurement is prone to corruption. World Bank reported that money lost from corruption accounted for roughly 8-25% of the procurement budget, and two third of 18% inefficiencies in public procurement is caused by corruption (Bosio, 2021). One form of corruption is bribery, and The OECD Foreign Bribery Report (2014) reveals that 57% of bribery cases are carried out to win public procurement (OECD, 2016).
Corruption cases in public procurement happened due to the lack of accountability and integrity. Transparency International initiated an Integrity Pact tool to promote integrity in public procurement. By signing the document, the bidders commit to avoid bribery, and the government commits to prevent corruption and follow transparency procedures. Many countries have adopted this pact, including South Korea, Indonesia, and India (Transparency International, 2014).
In addition, South Korea uses the pact to protect whistle blowers and create an ombudsman system. Ombudsman conducts independent external monitoring to public procurement process (OECD, 2016). As aforementioned (Figure 3), South Korea also conducts internal audits (carried out by PPS) and external audits (carried out by BAI). The audit is intended to monitor any fraud in the procurement system, especially for "large project" tenders.
Finally, South Korea uses e-payment, connecting the government, contractor, and bank. Thus, every party can monitor the payment flow to reduce fraud (OECD, 2007).
India uses the Integrity Pact as an essential part of the Draft National Anti-Corruption Strategy. The issuance of Directive 008/CRD/013 also refers to Integrity Pacts as Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) in any procurement contracts between the government and the bidders. Meanwhile, in Indonesia, integrity pact has been adopted LKPP as a basis of contract signing. Through Presidential Regulation No. 54 Year 2010, signing Integrity Pact is mandatory for the tenders committee (government) and the bidders.
Although corruption cases still happen, governments have the goodwill to curb corruption by ensuring integrity in e-procurement and conducting integrated monitoring through the technology (ICT). This information system can detect fraud, such as in South Korea.

b. Donor Relations
The emergence and support donors give the country in implementing public administration reform. In the implementation of e-procurement in South Korea, Indonesia, and India, some donors assist these countries as see Table 3.
The   Frøystad, Heggstad, & Fjeldstad (2010), political economy is the interest of multi actors in groups or society and how policy outcomes are responding to this interest. In public procurement, corruption happens due to the interest of different actors, such as the government, politicians, and bidders. Thus, how the political economy affects procurement reform will be discussed here.
KPK stated that e-procurement in Indonesia was vulnerable to corruption because 70% of corruption cases came from public procurement (Kumparan, 2020). The corruption happened due to the intervention of both executive and legislative. The phenomenon of rent seeker in Indonesia is still common. Many parliament members have been charged with corruption since they made a conspiracy in procurement. The last large-scale corruption is the markup of electronic ID cards (e-KTP) of USD 188 million carried out by many parliament members, procurement committees, and bidders.
Although South Korea's corruption perception index is better than Indonesia, it does not mean that South Korea is free from corruption in public procurement. In 2015, 63 people were charged with corruption on defense procurement projects (Fox News, 2015). Meanwhile, in India, bribes are often exchanged in return for government contracts (Business Anti-Corruption, 2017). These cases indicate that there are a lot of "rent-seekers" in public procurement who come from legislative, executive, and society. Although the system is advanced, monitoring should be strictly and regularly conducted.  Table 4, it can be inferred that the implementation of e-procurement in South Korea is better than in Indonesia and India. The implementation of KONEPS in South Korea benefits the government in terms of efficiency, transparency and accountability, and accessibility and equitability.

Conclusion and Lessons Learned
In conclusion, e-procurement is a part of government reform resulting in efficiency, transparency and accountability, and accessibility and equitability. To follow the success of South Korea in implementing KONEPS, Indonesia and India governments could improve efficiency (increasing the time duration), transparency and accountability (disclosing all procurement processes), and accessibility and equitability (increasing the accessibility of small Jejaring Administrasi Publik, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2022, hal 1-21 and micro enterprises to participate in procurement) in their e-procurements.
However, these countries still have corruption issues in procurement. The emergence of "rent seeker" is unavoidable and inseparable from economic activities. Thus, governments must promote accountability and act with integrity in all procurement activities to reduce rent seekers' access to corruption. Realizing that problems in procurement still occur, it needs more guidance and assistance from many donors such as World Bank and ADB to build the capacity of e-procurement.