ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSOR FOR ELECTROLYTE SCREENING IN SIMULATED RENAL SAMPLES
Downloads
Introduction: Electrolyte imbalance frequently occurs in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) due to impaired renal regulation of ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate. Uncorrected abnormalities can lead to cardiac arrhythmias, neuromuscular dysfunction, and increased mortality. Regular monitoring is critical; however, conventional laboratory methods often require complex equipment and are inaccessible in low-resource settings. Electrochemical sensors provide a practical alternative by enabling rapid, direct measurement of electrolytes through electrical signals generated by ion-selective electrodes. Methods: This study presents the development and validation of a drop-casting-based electrochemical sensor designed for detecting sodium (Na+), potassium (K+, chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO₃-) ions. The sensor was fabricated using a low-cost and straightforward method and tested with synthetic serum simulating both normal and renal failure conditions. Results: Calibration curves demonstrated strong linearity (R² > 0.93) for all ions, with minimal deviation for Na+ and K+ Performance validation showed acceptable sensitivity and stabilization time (<10 seconds), supporting its potential for point-of-care use. Conclusions: The device is easy to use, portable, and affordable, making it suitable for vocational healthcare workers in primary health centers and home-based care. Despite limitations in bicarbonate detection, the sensor shows promise for early electrolyte screening in decentralized healthcare settings. Further refinement and broader validation are recommended.
Ali, M. A., et al. (2022). Electrochemical biosensors for the detection of biological analytes. Biosensors, 12(7), 446.
Buck, J., Baker, R., Cannaby, A.-M., Nicholson, S., Peters, J., & Warwick, G. (2007). Why do patients known to renal services still undergo urgent dialysis initiation? Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 22(11), 3240–3245. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfm387
Dissanayake, H., Malgras, V., Doumert, B., Guo, J., & Yamauchi, Y. (2018). A review on electrochemical sensors for the detection of potassium, sodium, and calcium ions in biological fluids. Sensors, 18(3), 942.
Dobre, M., Yang, W., Chen, J., Drawz, P., Hamm, L. L., Horwitz, E, & Sarnak, M. J. (2015). Association of serum bicarbonate with risk of renal and cardiovascular outcomes in CKD: A report from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) study. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 66(4), 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.04.027
Frame, A. A., & Wainford, R. D. (2017). Pathophysiology of electrolyte abnormalities in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Research and Clinical Practice, 36(2), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.23876/j.krcp.2017.36.2.117
Ghaderinezhad, F., Koydemir, H. C., Tseng, D., Karinca, D., Liang, K., Ozcan, A., & Tasoglu, S. (2020). Sensing of electrolytes in urine using a miniaturized paper-based device. Scientific Reports, 10, 13620. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-70456-6
Gurevich, L., Salsberg, J., & Tan, J. (2024). Paper-based sensors for point-of-care kidney function monitoring. Diagnostics, 14(4), 463.
Kadri Balcı, A., et al. (2013). General characteristics of patients with electrolyte imbalance admitted to the emergency department. World Journal of Emergency Medicine, 4(2), 113–116. https://doi.org/10.5847/wjem.j.issn.1920-8642.2013.02.005
Locatelli, F., et al. (2012). Management of hyperkalaemia in patients with kidney disease: New perspectives. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 27(10), 3935–3942. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfs091
Łoniewski, I., & Wesson, D. E. (2014). Bicarbonate therapy for prevention of chronic kidney disease progression. Kidney International, 85(3), 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2013.401
Manjakkal, L., Lorenzelli, L., & Dahiya, R. (2024). Biosensors for detection of sodium and potassium ions in sweat and serum: Challenges and clinical potential. Biosensors, 14(4), 463.
Mulyanti, B., Nugroho, H. S., Wulandari, C., et al. (2022). SPR‐based sensor for the early detection or monitoring of kidney problems. International Journal of Biomaterials, 1, 1-12 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9135172
O’Callaghan, C. A., Camidge, C., Thomas, R., Reschen, M. E., Maycock, A. J., Lasserson, D. S., Fox, R. A., Thomas, N. P. B., Shine, B., & James, T. (2023). Evaluation of a simple low-cost intervention to empower people with CKD to reduce their dietary salt intake: OxCKD1, a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Kidney 360, 4(7), 890–898. https://doi.org/10.34067/KID.0000000000000160
Ravagli, E. (2017). Sensor technologies for online monitoring of biological parameters during hemodialysis [Doctoral dissertation, Università di Bologna]. Retrieved Oktober 15, 2024. from https://amsdottorato.unibo.it/id/eprint/7924/1/PhD_Thesis_EnricoRavagli.pdf
Ravagli, E. (2021). Development of wearable potentiometric sensors for continuous health monitoring [PhD thesis, University of Pisa].
Rezvani Jalal, N., Madrakian, T., Ahmadi, M., et al. (2024). Wireless wearable potentiometric sensor for simultaneous determination of pH, sodium, and potassium in human sweat. Scientific Reports, 14, 11526. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62236-3
Song, Z., et al. (2021). Advances in ion-selective flexible biosensors for healthcare. Biosensors, 11(2), 109.
Tricoli, A., & Neri, G. (2018). Miniaturized bio- and chemical-sensors for point-of-care monitoring of chronic kidney diseases. Sensors, 18(4), 942. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18040942
Trifirò, G., Giorgianni, F., Marcianò, I., & Ferrajolo, C. (2014). Chronic kidney disease requiring healthcare services: A new approach to identify patients and assess burden using administrative data. BioMed Research International, 2014(1), 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/268362
Wieringa, F. P., Broers, N. J. H., Kooman, J. P., Van Der Sande, F. M., & Van Hoof, C. (2017). Wearable sensors: Can they benefit patients with chronic kidney disease? Expert Review of Medical Devices, 14(7), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2017.1342533
World Health Organization. (2022). Global report on health equity for persons with disabilities. Geneva: WHO.
World Health Organization. (2022). Primary health care measurement framework and indicators.
Copyright (c) 2025 Belgis Belgis, Muhaimin Muhaimin, Aji Akbar Firdaus
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright Notice
1. The journal allows the author to hold the copyright of the article without restrictions.
2. The journal allows the author(s) to retain publishing rights without restrictions.
3. The legal formal aspect of journal publication accessibility refers to Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY).
