Transitional Justice in Indonesia: The Persistent Challenge of Addressing the 1965-1966 Mass Killings
Downloads
This article explores why Indonesia has struggled to achieve meaningful transitional justice for the 1965-1966 mass killings despite ongoing democratic reforms and advocacy efforts. These events, which led to the deaths of an estimated 500,000 to one million alleged communists, remain unaddressed due to entrenched political and military power, societal resistance, and ineffective judicial mechanisms. Using a qualitative approach, this research examines survivor testimonies, official reports from institutions such as Komnas HAM, and scholarly literature to understand the underlying challenges. The findings suggest that Indonesia's inability to confront these past atrocities stems from a lack of political will, continued military influence, and a deeply ingrained culture of silence reinforced by decades of state propaganda. While international advocacy efforts, including the International People's Tribunal (IPT) and grassroots movements, have shed light on the issue, systemic obstacles impede progress. This study highlights the potential benefits of hybrid courts, an independent truth commission, and comprehensive reparations programs by comparing Indonesia's situation with transitional justice efforts in South Africa and Cambodia. These reforms are crucial for addressing historical injustices, fostering national reconciliation, and promoting long-term accountability.
Keywords: Transitional justice, 1965-1966 killings, Indonesia, Human rights, Impunity
Artikel ini membahas mengapa Indonesia kesulitan untuk mencapai keadilan transisional yang bermakna untuk pembunuhan massal tahun 1965-1966, meskipun telah melakukan reformasi demokrasi dan upaya advokasi yang berkelanjutan. Peristiwa yang mengakibatkan kematian sekitar 500.000 hingga satu juta orang yang dituduh komunis ini, masih belum terselesaikan karena kuatnya kekuasaan politik dan militer, resistensi masyarakat, dan mekanisme peradilan yang tidak efektif. Dengan pendekatan kualitatif, penelitian ini menganalisis kesaksian korban, laporan para penyintas, laporan resmi dari institusi Komnas HAM, dan literatur akademis untuk memahami tantangan mendasar yang ada. Temuan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ketidakmampuan Indonesia dalam menghadapi kekejaman masa lalu ini disebabkan oleh kurangnya kemauan politik, pengaruh militer yang masih kuat, serta budaya “diam” yang mengakar akibat propaganda negara selama puluhan tahun. Meskipun upaya advokasi internasional, seperti International People's Tribunal (IPT), dan gerakan akar rumput telah menyoroti masalah ini, hambatan sistemis menghalangi kemajuan. Studi ini menekankan potensi manfaat dari pengadilan hibrida, komisi kebenaran yang independen, dan program reparasi komprehensif dengan membandingkan situasi Indonesia dengan upaya keadilan transisional di Afrika Selatan dan Kamboja. Reformasi ini penting untuk mengatasi ketidakadilan sejarah, memupuk rekonsiliasi nasional, dan mendorong akuntabilitas jangka panjang.
Kata-Kata Kunci: Keadilan transisional, Pembunuhan 1965-1966, Indonesia, Hak asasi manusia, Impunitas
Books and Book Chapters
Aguilar, P., 2002. Memory and Amnesia: The Role of the Spanish Civil War in the Transition to Democracy. Berghahn Books.
Assmann, A., 2012. “Re-framing Memory: Between Individual and Collective Forms of Constructing the Past”, in Tilmans, Karin, et al. (eds.), 2012. Performing the Past: Memory, History, and Identity in Modern Europe. Amsterdam University Press.
Brito, A. B. de, et al., 2001. The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies. Oxford.
Brysk, A., 1994. The Politics of Human Rights in Argentina: Protest, Change, and Democratization. Stanford University Press.
Clark, P., 2010. The Gacaca Courts, Post-Genocide Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda: Justice Without Lawyers. Cambridge University Press.
Freeman, M., 2006. Truth Commissions and Procedural Fairness. Cambridge University Press.
Gready, P., and Simon Robins, 2019. From transitional to transformative justice. Cambridge University Press.
Hayner, P. B., 2011. Unspeakable truths: Transitional justice and the challenge of truth commissions. Routledge.
Hazan, P., 2004. Justice in a Time of War: The True Story Behind the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. Texas A&M University Press.
Heryanto, A., 2005. State terrorism and political identity in Indonesia: Fatally belonging. Routledge.
Huyssen, A., 2003. Present Pasts: Urban Palimpsests and the Politics of Memory. Stanford University Press.
Laplante, L. J., 2013. “Transitional Justice and Peace Building for the Future: Diagnosing and Addressing the Socioeconomic Roots of Violence Through a Human Rights and Intergenerational Framework”, in Jodoin, S. and Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, 2013. Sustainable Development, International Criminal Justice, and Treaty Implementation. Cambridge University Press.
Linton, S., 2004. Reconciliation in Cambodia. Documentation Centre of Cambodia. Phnom Penh.
McAuliffe, P., 2013. Transitional justice and rule of law reconstruction: A contentious relationship. Routledge.
McGregor, K., et al., 2018 (eds.). The Indonesian genocide of 1965: Causes, dynamics and legacies. Palgrave Macmillan.
Melvin, J., 2018. The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge.
Mietzner, M., 2008. Military politics, Islam, and the state in Indonesia: From turbulent transition to democratic consolidation. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Minow, M., 1998. Between vengeance and forgiveness: Facing history after genocide and mass violence. Beacon Press.
Robinson, G. B., 2018. The killing season: A history of the Indonesian massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press.
Sikkink, K., 2011. The justice cascade: How human rights prosecutions are changing world politics. W.W. Norton & Co.
Skaar, E., et al., 2017. Transitional Justice in Latin America: The Uneven Road from Impunity Towards Accountability. Routledge.
Sriram, C. L., 2004. Confronting Past Human Rights Violations: Justice vs Peace in Times of Transition. London & New York: Frank Cass.
Subotic, J., 2009. Hijacked Justice: Dealing with the Past in the Balkans. Cornell University Press.
Teitel, R. G., 2000. Transitional justice. Oxford University Press.
Zelizer, B., 2000. Remembering to Forget: Holocaust Memory Through the Camera’s Eye. University of Chicago Press.
Zurbuchen, M. S. (ed.), 2005. Beginning to remember: The past in the Indonesian present. University of Washington Press.
Journal and Online Journal
Arthur, Paige, 2009. “How 'Transitions' Reshaped Human Rights: A Conceptual History of Transitional Justice”, Human Rights Quarterly, 31(2): 321-367.
Boraine, A. L., 2006. “TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE: A HOLISTIC INTERPRETATION”, Journal of International Affairs, 60(1): 17-27.
Braun, V., & Victoria Clarke, 2006. “Using thematic analysis in psychology”, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2): 77–101.
Cribb, R., 2001. “Genocide in Indonesia, 1965‐1966”, Journal of Genocide Research, 3(2): 219–239.
Gibson, J. L., 2005. “The truth about truth and reconciliation in South Africa”, International Political Science Review, 26(4): 341-361.
Nagy, R., 2008. “Transitional justice as a global project: Critical reflections”, 29(2): 275–289.
Pohlman, A., 2013. “Reports by human rights and victim advocacy organizations in Indonesia: Reconciling the violence of 1965”, Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 32(3): 143–165.
Snyder, J., and Leslie Vinjamuri, 2004. “Trials and Errors: Principle and Pragmatism in Strategies of International Justice”, International Security, 28(3): 5–44.
Thoms, O. N. T., et al., 2010. “State-Level Effects of Transitional Justice: What Do We Know?”, International Journal of Transitional Justice, 4(3): 1-26.
Wahyuningroem, S. L., 2019. “Towards post-transitional justice: The failures of transitional justice and the roles of civil society in Indonesia”, Journal of Southeast Asian Human Rights, 3(1): 124–154.
Official Documents
Komnas HAM, 2012. Declaration of the Human Rights Commission (Komnas HAM) regarding the investigation into serious human rights violations related to the events of 1965-1966.
United Nations, 2010. Guidance Note of the Secretary-General: United Nations approach to transitional justice.
Reports
Amnesty International, 2023. Freedom, justice, equality: Human rights agenda for the elected government officials.
ICTJ & KontraS, 2011. Derailed: Transitional justice in Indonesia since the fall of Soeharto. International Center for Transitional Justice.
IPT of 1965, 2015. Final report of the IPT 1965: Findings and documents of the IPT 1965.
Video (Film)
Oppenheimer, J., 2014. The act of killing and The Look of Silence. [video].
Online Articles
Amnesty International, 2016. “Indonesia: Close gap between rhetoric and reality on 1965 mass human rights violations” [online]. in https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa21/4914/2016/en/ [accessed at 10 April 2025].
Copyright (c) 2025 Global Strategis

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish in this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal
- Authors are unable to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work
- Authors are not permitted to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
- The Copyright Holder of the articles is Global Strategis