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Seagrass Ecosystem Assesment for Dugong Conservation: Integrating Anthropogenic Activites and Oceanographic Parameters in East Java’s Coastal Waters
Corresponding Author(s) : Citra Satrya Utama Dewi
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan, 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
Abstract
Graphical Abstract
Highlight Research
1. The study successfully identified the utilization of coastal and marine areas within the research site.
2. Oceanographic parameters across the study area have been analyzed, providing insights into variations in environmental conditions favoring seagrass ecosystem resilience.
3. The structure of seagrass vegetation has been thoroughly observed, revealing differences in species composition, density, and coverage.
4. Furthermore, the study establishes the connectivity between coastal and marine spatial utilization, oceanographic factors, and seagrass ecosystem dynamics, highlighting their interdependent relationships.
Abstract
This study aims to assess the ecological status of seagrass meadows and their relationship with dugong (Dugong dugon) habitats across four distinct ecological regions in East Java, Indonesia. Field assessments were conducted to evaluate seagrass community structure, oceanographic parameters, and the intensity of human activities. Seagrass distribution was mapped using Sentinel-2A satellite imagery, while seagrass health was evaluated through the Seagrass Ecological Quality Index (SEQI) and Importance Value Index (IVI). Statistical analyses, including Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), were employed to identify significant differences and key environmental drivers. The results revealed marked spatial variation in oceanographic characteristics and seagrass coverage (p < 0.05). PCA showed that anthropogenic factors—particularly marine space utilization such as aquaculture and coastal development—were major contributors to seagrass degradation. Elevated nutrient concentrations were also associated with declining seagrass health, indicating land-based pollution as a dominant stressor. These findings underline the urgent need for integrated coastal zone management. Strengthening conservation policies, reducing terrestrial runoff, and implementing sustainable marine spatial planning are critical to safeguard seagrass ecosystems and ensure the long-term survival of dugong populations in Indonesian waters.
Keywords
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- Al-Asif, A., Kamal, A. H. M., Hamli, H., Idris, M. H., Gerusu, G. J., Ismail, J., Bhuiyan, M. K. A., Abualreesh, M. H., Musa, N., Wahid, M. E. A., & Mishra, M. (2022). Status, biodiversity, and ecosystem services of seagrass habitats within the coral triangle in the Western Pacific Ocean. Ocean Science Journal, 57(2):147-173.
- Aulia, E. D., Muzaki, F. K., Saptarini, D., Setiawan, E., Setiamarga, D., Lutvianti, I. D., Rosyidah, S. K., & Muhammad, N. A. (2021). Diversity of sea cucumber from intertidal area of Pacitan and Bangkalan, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 22(4):2136-2141.
- Baur, H., Kranz-Baltensperger, Y., Cruaud, A., Rasplus, J. Y., Timokhov, A. V., & Gokhman, V. E. (2014). Morphometric analysis and taxonomic revision of anisopteromalus ruschka (hymenoptera: chalcidoidea: pteromalidae) - an integrative approach. Systematic Entomology, 39(4):691-709.
- Budiarsa, A. A., De Iongh, H. H., Kustiawan, W., & van Bodegom, P. M. (2021). Dugong foraging behavior on tropical intertidal seagrass meadows: The influence of climatic drivers and anthropogenic disturbance. Hydrobiologia, 848(18):4153-4166.
- Campbell, M. L., Heppenstall, L. D., Hendry, R., Martin, R., Sørensen, S., Rubenstein, A. N., & Hewitt, C. L. (2018). Niche partitioning of intertidal seagrasses: Evidence of the influence of substrate temperature. New Phytologist, 217(4):1449-1462.
- Cleguer, C., Garrigue, C., & Marsh, H. (2020). Dugong (Dugong dugon) movements and habitat use in a coral reef lagoonal ecosystem. Endangered Species Research, 43(13):167-181.
- Cleguer, C. & Marsh, H. (2023). An inventory of dugong aerial surveys in Australia. James Cook University Australia.
- De Iongh, H. H., Kiswara, W., Kustiawan, W., & Loth, P. E. (2007). A review of research on the interactions between dugongs (Dugong dugon Müller 1776) and intertidal seagrass beds in Indonesia. Hydrobiologia, 591(1):73-83.
- Dewi, C. S., Handayani, M., Kurniawan, F., Yona, D., Rohenda, A. A., & Asadi, M. A. (2024). Potential carbon stock of seagrass biomass in Malang Regency. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1328(1):1-7.
- Dewi, C. S. U., Wahyudi, S., Widodo, Tarno, H., Ciptadi, G., & Wiadnya, D. G. R. (2024a). Analyzing seagrass species and distribution for sustainable management of coastal areas and small islands: A case study of Java Island, Indonesia. BIO Web of Conferences, 106(11):1-9.
- Dewi, C. S. U., Wahyudi, S., Widodo, Tarno, H., Ciptadi, G., & Wiadnya, D. G. R. (2024b). Dugong dugon (Muller 1776) and its habitat in coastal areas and small islands of East Java Province, Indonesia. The 2nd Aquatic Science International Conference (ASIC) 2023, 1328(1):1-9.
- do Amaral Camara Lima, M., Bergamo, T. F., Ward, R. D., & Joyce, C. B. (2023). A review of seagrass ecosystem services: Providing nature-based solutions for a changing world. Hydrobiologia, 850(12):2655-2670.
- Fraser, M. W., Kendrick, G. A., Grierson, P. F., Fourqurean, J. W., Vanderklift, M. A., & Walker, D. I. (2012). Nutrient status of seagrasses cannot be inferred from system-scale distribution of phosphorus in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research, 63(11):1015-1026.
- Giakoumi, S., Halpern, B. S., Michel, L. N., Gobert, S., Sini, M., Boudouresque, C. F., Gambi, M. C., Katsanevakis, S., Lejeune, P., Montefalcone, M., Pergent, G., Pergent-Martini, C., Sanchez-Jerez, P., Velimirov, B., Vizzini, S., Abadie, A., Coll, M., Guidetti, P., Micheli, F., & Possingham, H. P. (2015). Towards a framework for assessment and management of cumulative human impacts on marine food webs. Conservation Biology, 29(4):1228-1234.
- Grech, A., Chartrand-Miller, K., Erftemeijer, P., Fonseca, M., McKenzie, L., Rasheed, M., Taylor, H., & Coles, R. (2012). A comparison of threats, vulnerabilities and management approaches in global seagrass bioregions. Environmental Research Letters, 7(2):1-8.
- Hernawan, U. E., Rahmawati, S., Ambo-Rappe, R., Sjafrie, N. D. M., Hadiyanto, H., Yusup, D. S., Nugraha, A. H., La Nafie, Y. A., Adi, W., Prayudha, B., Irawan, A., Rahayu, Y. P., Ningsih, E., Riniatsih, I., Supriyadi, I. H., & McMahon, K. (2021). The first nation-wide assessment identifies valuable blue‑carbon seagrass habitat in Indonesia is in moderate condition. In Science of the Total Environment, 782(96):1-11.
- Idris, F., Karlina, I., Herandarudewi, S. M. C., & Nugraha, A. H. (2020). Short communication: Dugong’s presence confirmation in Bintan Island based on local ecological knowledge. AACL Bioflux, 13(2):651-656.
- Irawan, A., Supriharyono, Hutabarat, J., & Ambariyanto. (2018). Seagrass beds as the buffer zone for fish biodiversity in coastal water of Bontang city, east Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 19(3):1044-1053.
- Kusnadi, A., Alifatri, L. O., Chamidy, A. N., Rasyidin, A., & Sobirin, S. (2024). Evaluating the seagrass ecological condition and habitat extent in Karimunjawa National Park, Jepara Indonesia. Jurnal Kelautan Tropis, 27(1):161-169.
- Liu, S., Wu, Y., Luo, H., Ren, Y., Jiang, Z., Zhang, X., Fang, Y., Liang, J., & Huang, X. (2023). Seagrass canopy structure mediates putative bacterial pathogen removal potential. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9(1):1-7.
- Losciale, R., Day, J., & Heron, S. (2022). Conservation status, research, and knowledge of seagrass habitats in World Heritage properties. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(12):1-17.
- Losciale, R., Hay, R., Rasheed, M., & Heron, S. (2022). The public perception of the role, importance, and vulnerability of seagrass. A case study from the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Development, 44(14):1-20.
- Mascariňas, H. J. C., & Otadoy, J. B. (2023). Economic valuation of seagrass ecosystem in Maribojoc Bay, Bohol, Philippines. Biodiversitas, 24(8):4448-4456.
- Maxwell, P. S., Pitt, K. A., Olds, A. D., Rissik, D., & Connolly, R. M. (2015). Identifying habitats at risk: Simple models can reveal complex ecosystem dynamics. Ecological Applications, 25(2):573-587.
- McGowan, A. M., Lanyon, J. M., Clark, N., Blair, D., Marsh, H., Wolanski, E., & Seddon, J. M. (2023). Cryptic marine barriers to gene flow in a vulnerable coastal species, the dugong (Dugong dugon). Marine Mammal Science, 39(3):1-22.
- McKenzie, L., & Yoshida, R. (2013). Seagrass-Watch: Proceedings of a workshop for monitoring seagrass habitats in South East Queensland. Seagrass-Watch HQ.
- Metsalu, T., & Vilo, J. (2015). ClustVis: A web tool for visualizing clustering of multivariate data using Principal Component Analysis and heatmap. Nucleic Acids Research, 41(1):566-570.
- Nugraha, A. H., Tasabaramo, I. A., Hernawan, U. E., Rahmawati, S., Irawan, A., Juraij, Khalifa, M. A., & Dharmawan, I. W. E. (2019). Relationship of distribution seagrass species with dugong (Dugong dugon) sighting at Liki Island–Papua. Omni-Akuatika, 15(2):92-97.
- Peters, J. R., McCloskey, R. M., Hinder, S. L., & Unsworth, R. K. F. (2015). Motile fauna of sub-tidal Zostera marina meadows in England and Wales. Marine Biodiversity, 45(4):647-654.
- Rahmawati, S., Irawan, A., Supriyadi, I. H., & Azkab, M. H. (2017). Seagrass monitoring guidelines. Jakarta: COREMAP CTI LIPI.
- Rahmawati, S., Lisdayanti, E., Kusnadi, A., Rizqi, M. P., Putra, I. P., Irawan, A., Supriyadi, I. H., Prayudha, B., Suyarso, Alifatri, L. O., Iswari, M. Y., Anggraini, K., Hadiyanto, Hernawan, U. E., Ambo-Rappe, R., Choesin, D. N., Nugraha, A. H., Sjafrie, N. D. M., Riniatsih, I., & Rahmadi, P. (2022). Status of Seagrass Ecosystems in Indonesia in 2021. Jakarta: COREMAP-CTI.
- Ramírez-Zúñiga, M. A., Pérez-Estrada, C. J., López-Calderón, J. M., Cannon, A. L., Vanderplank, S., & Favoretto, F. (2024). Updating and validating seagrass ecosystem knowledge in the gulf of California: a comprehensive review. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11(2):1-12.
- Rosalina, D., Jamil, K., Arafat, Y., Amalia, R., & Leilani, A. (2023). Mapping of seagrass ecosystem on Bontosua Island, Pangkep District, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 24(4):2023-2030.
- Scott, A. L., York, P. H., Duncan, C., Macreadie, P. I., Connolly, R. M., Ellis, M. T., Jarvis, J. C., Jinks, K. I., Marsh, H., & Rasheed, M. A. (2018). The role of herbivory in structuring tropical seagrass ecosystem service delivery. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9(2):1-10.
- Shen, J., Wu, Z., Yin, L., Chen, S., Cai, Z., Geng, X., & Wang, D. (2022). Physiological basis and differentially expressed genes in the salt tolerance mechanism of Thalassia hemprichii. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13(2):1-13.
- Sheppard, J. K., Marsh, H., Jones, R. E., & Lawler, I. R. (2010). Dugong habitat use in relation to seagrass nutrients, tides, and diel cycles. Marine Mammal Science, 26(4):855-879.
- Shrestha, R., Karmacharya, S. B., & Jha, P. K. (2000). Vegetation analysis of natural and degraded forests in Chitrepani in Siwalik region of Central Nepal. Tropical Ecology, 41(1):111-114.
- Sukandar, S., & Dewi, C. S. U. (2017). Status of seagrass in Talango Island, Madura and its potential as bioactive compound. Depik, 6(2):138-144.
- Tang, K. H. D., & Hadibarata, T. (2022). Seagrass meadows under the changing climate: A review of the impacts of climate stressors. Research in Ecology, 4(1):27-36.
- Thibault, M., Letourneur, Y., Cleguer, C., Bonneville, C., Briand, M. J., Derville, S., Bustamante, P., & Garrigue, C. (2024). C and N stable isotopes enlighten the trophic behaviour of the dugong (Dugong dugon). Scientific Reports, 14(1):1-11.
- Unsworth, R. K. F., Ambo-Rappe, R., Jones, B. L., La Nafie, Y. A., Irawan, A., Hernawan, U. E., Moore, A. M., & Cullen-Unsworth, L. C. (2018). Indonesia’s globally significant seagrass meadows are under widespread threat. Science of the Total Environment, 634(31):279-286.
- Sunuddin, A., Khalifa, M. A., Lubis, S.B., Setiono, & Tania C. (2018). Anthology of dugong and seagrass habitat Conservation in Indonesia. IPB Press.
- Emeka, V. I., Emeka, C. N., Ebong, E. D., Ojong, R. A., & Chikezie, P. C. (2023). Tidal dynamics and physicochemical parameters in a tropical estuary: Qua-Iboe River estuary, Southeast coast of Nigeria. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 29(2):175-192.
- Wahyudi, A. J., Hernawan, U. E., Alifatri, L. O., Prayudha, B., Sani, S. Y., Febriani, F., & Ulumuddin, Y. I. (2022). Carbon-offset potential from tropical seagrass conservation in selected areas of Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 178(78):1-8.
- Widagti, N., Sidik, F., Yunanto, A., Ampou, E. E., & Surana, I. N. (2023). Ecological condition of seagrass meadow in Lembeh Island, Bitung Regency, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. E3S Web of Conferences, 442(18):1-11.
- Xu, S., Zhou, Y., Wang, P., Wang, F., Zhang, X., & Gu, R. (2016). Salinity and temperature significantly influence seed germination, seedling establishment, and seedling growth of eelgrass Zostera marina L. PeerJ, 4(11):1-21.
References
Al-Asif, A., Kamal, A. H. M., Hamli, H., Idris, M. H., Gerusu, G. J., Ismail, J., Bhuiyan, M. K. A., Abualreesh, M. H., Musa, N., Wahid, M. E. A., & Mishra, M. (2022). Status, biodiversity, and ecosystem services of seagrass habitats within the coral triangle in the Western Pacific Ocean. Ocean Science Journal, 57(2):147-173.
Aulia, E. D., Muzaki, F. K., Saptarini, D., Setiawan, E., Setiamarga, D., Lutvianti, I. D., Rosyidah, S. K., & Muhammad, N. A. (2021). Diversity of sea cucumber from intertidal area of Pacitan and Bangkalan, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 22(4):2136-2141.
Baur, H., Kranz-Baltensperger, Y., Cruaud, A., Rasplus, J. Y., Timokhov, A. V., & Gokhman, V. E. (2014). Morphometric analysis and taxonomic revision of anisopteromalus ruschka (hymenoptera: chalcidoidea: pteromalidae) - an integrative approach. Systematic Entomology, 39(4):691-709.
Budiarsa, A. A., De Iongh, H. H., Kustiawan, W., & van Bodegom, P. M. (2021). Dugong foraging behavior on tropical intertidal seagrass meadows: The influence of climatic drivers and anthropogenic disturbance. Hydrobiologia, 848(18):4153-4166.
Campbell, M. L., Heppenstall, L. D., Hendry, R., Martin, R., Sørensen, S., Rubenstein, A. N., & Hewitt, C. L. (2018). Niche partitioning of intertidal seagrasses: Evidence of the influence of substrate temperature. New Phytologist, 217(4):1449-1462.
Cleguer, C., Garrigue, C., & Marsh, H. (2020). Dugong (Dugong dugon) movements and habitat use in a coral reef lagoonal ecosystem. Endangered Species Research, 43(13):167-181.
Cleguer, C. & Marsh, H. (2023). An inventory of dugong aerial surveys in Australia. James Cook University Australia.
De Iongh, H. H., Kiswara, W., Kustiawan, W., & Loth, P. E. (2007). A review of research on the interactions between dugongs (Dugong dugon Müller 1776) and intertidal seagrass beds in Indonesia. Hydrobiologia, 591(1):73-83.
Dewi, C. S., Handayani, M., Kurniawan, F., Yona, D., Rohenda, A. A., & Asadi, M. A. (2024). Potential carbon stock of seagrass biomass in Malang Regency. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1328(1):1-7.
Dewi, C. S. U., Wahyudi, S., Widodo, Tarno, H., Ciptadi, G., & Wiadnya, D. G. R. (2024a). Analyzing seagrass species and distribution for sustainable management of coastal areas and small islands: A case study of Java Island, Indonesia. BIO Web of Conferences, 106(11):1-9.
Dewi, C. S. U., Wahyudi, S., Widodo, Tarno, H., Ciptadi, G., & Wiadnya, D. G. R. (2024b). Dugong dugon (Muller 1776) and its habitat in coastal areas and small islands of East Java Province, Indonesia. The 2nd Aquatic Science International Conference (ASIC) 2023, 1328(1):1-9.
do Amaral Camara Lima, M., Bergamo, T. F., Ward, R. D., & Joyce, C. B. (2023). A review of seagrass ecosystem services: Providing nature-based solutions for a changing world. Hydrobiologia, 850(12):2655-2670.
Fraser, M. W., Kendrick, G. A., Grierson, P. F., Fourqurean, J. W., Vanderklift, M. A., & Walker, D. I. (2012). Nutrient status of seagrasses cannot be inferred from system-scale distribution of phosphorus in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research, 63(11):1015-1026.
Giakoumi, S., Halpern, B. S., Michel, L. N., Gobert, S., Sini, M., Boudouresque, C. F., Gambi, M. C., Katsanevakis, S., Lejeune, P., Montefalcone, M., Pergent, G., Pergent-Martini, C., Sanchez-Jerez, P., Velimirov, B., Vizzini, S., Abadie, A., Coll, M., Guidetti, P., Micheli, F., & Possingham, H. P. (2015). Towards a framework for assessment and management of cumulative human impacts on marine food webs. Conservation Biology, 29(4):1228-1234.
Grech, A., Chartrand-Miller, K., Erftemeijer, P., Fonseca, M., McKenzie, L., Rasheed, M., Taylor, H., & Coles, R. (2012). A comparison of threats, vulnerabilities and management approaches in global seagrass bioregions. Environmental Research Letters, 7(2):1-8.
Hernawan, U. E., Rahmawati, S., Ambo-Rappe, R., Sjafrie, N. D. M., Hadiyanto, H., Yusup, D. S., Nugraha, A. H., La Nafie, Y. A., Adi, W., Prayudha, B., Irawan, A., Rahayu, Y. P., Ningsih, E., Riniatsih, I., Supriyadi, I. H., & McMahon, K. (2021). The first nation-wide assessment identifies valuable blue‑carbon seagrass habitat in Indonesia is in moderate condition. In Science of the Total Environment, 782(96):1-11.
Idris, F., Karlina, I., Herandarudewi, S. M. C., & Nugraha, A. H. (2020). Short communication: Dugong’s presence confirmation in Bintan Island based on local ecological knowledge. AACL Bioflux, 13(2):651-656.
Irawan, A., Supriharyono, Hutabarat, J., & Ambariyanto. (2018). Seagrass beds as the buffer zone for fish biodiversity in coastal water of Bontang city, east Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 19(3):1044-1053.
Kusnadi, A., Alifatri, L. O., Chamidy, A. N., Rasyidin, A., & Sobirin, S. (2024). Evaluating the seagrass ecological condition and habitat extent in Karimunjawa National Park, Jepara Indonesia. Jurnal Kelautan Tropis, 27(1):161-169.
Liu, S., Wu, Y., Luo, H., Ren, Y., Jiang, Z., Zhang, X., Fang, Y., Liang, J., & Huang, X. (2023). Seagrass canopy structure mediates putative bacterial pathogen removal potential. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9(1):1-7.
Losciale, R., Day, J., & Heron, S. (2022). Conservation status, research, and knowledge of seagrass habitats in World Heritage properties. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(12):1-17.
Losciale, R., Hay, R., Rasheed, M., & Heron, S. (2022). The public perception of the role, importance, and vulnerability of seagrass. A case study from the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Development, 44(14):1-20.
Mascariňas, H. J. C., & Otadoy, J. B. (2023). Economic valuation of seagrass ecosystem in Maribojoc Bay, Bohol, Philippines. Biodiversitas, 24(8):4448-4456.
Maxwell, P. S., Pitt, K. A., Olds, A. D., Rissik, D., & Connolly, R. M. (2015). Identifying habitats at risk: Simple models can reveal complex ecosystem dynamics. Ecological Applications, 25(2):573-587.
McGowan, A. M., Lanyon, J. M., Clark, N., Blair, D., Marsh, H., Wolanski, E., & Seddon, J. M. (2023). Cryptic marine barriers to gene flow in a vulnerable coastal species, the dugong (Dugong dugon). Marine Mammal Science, 39(3):1-22.
McKenzie, L., & Yoshida, R. (2013). Seagrass-Watch: Proceedings of a workshop for monitoring seagrass habitats in South East Queensland. Seagrass-Watch HQ.
Metsalu, T., & Vilo, J. (2015). ClustVis: A web tool for visualizing clustering of multivariate data using Principal Component Analysis and heatmap. Nucleic Acids Research, 41(1):566-570.
Nugraha, A. H., Tasabaramo, I. A., Hernawan, U. E., Rahmawati, S., Irawan, A., Juraij, Khalifa, M. A., & Dharmawan, I. W. E. (2019). Relationship of distribution seagrass species with dugong (Dugong dugon) sighting at Liki Island–Papua. Omni-Akuatika, 15(2):92-97.
Peters, J. R., McCloskey, R. M., Hinder, S. L., & Unsworth, R. K. F. (2015). Motile fauna of sub-tidal Zostera marina meadows in England and Wales. Marine Biodiversity, 45(4):647-654.
Rahmawati, S., Irawan, A., Supriyadi, I. H., & Azkab, M. H. (2017). Seagrass monitoring guidelines. Jakarta: COREMAP CTI LIPI.
Rahmawati, S., Lisdayanti, E., Kusnadi, A., Rizqi, M. P., Putra, I. P., Irawan, A., Supriyadi, I. H., Prayudha, B., Suyarso, Alifatri, L. O., Iswari, M. Y., Anggraini, K., Hadiyanto, Hernawan, U. E., Ambo-Rappe, R., Choesin, D. N., Nugraha, A. H., Sjafrie, N. D. M., Riniatsih, I., & Rahmadi, P. (2022). Status of Seagrass Ecosystems in Indonesia in 2021. Jakarta: COREMAP-CTI.
Ramírez-Zúñiga, M. A., Pérez-Estrada, C. J., López-Calderón, J. M., Cannon, A. L., Vanderplank, S., & Favoretto, F. (2024). Updating and validating seagrass ecosystem knowledge in the gulf of California: a comprehensive review. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11(2):1-12.
Rosalina, D., Jamil, K., Arafat, Y., Amalia, R., & Leilani, A. (2023). Mapping of seagrass ecosystem on Bontosua Island, Pangkep District, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 24(4):2023-2030.
Scott, A. L., York, P. H., Duncan, C., Macreadie, P. I., Connolly, R. M., Ellis, M. T., Jarvis, J. C., Jinks, K. I., Marsh, H., & Rasheed, M. A. (2018). The role of herbivory in structuring tropical seagrass ecosystem service delivery. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9(2):1-10.
Shen, J., Wu, Z., Yin, L., Chen, S., Cai, Z., Geng, X., & Wang, D. (2022). Physiological basis and differentially expressed genes in the salt tolerance mechanism of Thalassia hemprichii. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13(2):1-13.
Sheppard, J. K., Marsh, H., Jones, R. E., & Lawler, I. R. (2010). Dugong habitat use in relation to seagrass nutrients, tides, and diel cycles. Marine Mammal Science, 26(4):855-879.
Shrestha, R., Karmacharya, S. B., & Jha, P. K. (2000). Vegetation analysis of natural and degraded forests in Chitrepani in Siwalik region of Central Nepal. Tropical Ecology, 41(1):111-114.
Sukandar, S., & Dewi, C. S. U. (2017). Status of seagrass in Talango Island, Madura and its potential as bioactive compound. Depik, 6(2):138-144.
Tang, K. H. D., & Hadibarata, T. (2022). Seagrass meadows under the changing climate: A review of the impacts of climate stressors. Research in Ecology, 4(1):27-36.
Thibault, M., Letourneur, Y., Cleguer, C., Bonneville, C., Briand, M. J., Derville, S., Bustamante, P., & Garrigue, C. (2024). C and N stable isotopes enlighten the trophic behaviour of the dugong (Dugong dugon). Scientific Reports, 14(1):1-11.
Unsworth, R. K. F., Ambo-Rappe, R., Jones, B. L., La Nafie, Y. A., Irawan, A., Hernawan, U. E., Moore, A. M., & Cullen-Unsworth, L. C. (2018). Indonesia’s globally significant seagrass meadows are under widespread threat. Science of the Total Environment, 634(31):279-286.
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